The Fall of Classical Greece Essay Example for Free

The Fall of Classical Greece Essay The war between Athens and Sparta in the fifth century BCE was a major turning point in western history. It marked both the end of Athens as a Mediterranean superpower, and the end of the Greek Golden Age. The war lasted nearly thirty years, left hundreds of thousands dead, disrupted trade, bankrupted both societies, altered the course of warfare, and rattled the platform of democracy. Though Sparta emerged victorious and Athens brutally subjugated, neither city state was able to recoup their former prosperity and power and both yielded to another Greek superpower after less than a century of tenuous peace. Nothing would be the same after the Peloponnesian War. In Classical Greece most states allied with either Sparta or Athens, the two most opposite states in the Greek world1. The Spartans focused on creating the perfect warrior; they were a militaristic oligarchic state dependent on slaves2. They viewed the democratic Athenians with suspicion and increasing resentment, especially after the Persian wars when Athens was becoming the authoritative economic and cultural centre of Greece. With its commanding navy Athens was able to accumulate many tribute-bearing allies and to devote itself to spreading democracy. According to Thucydides, the leading source of the events during the Peloponnesian War, the prime reason for the war was the growth of Athenian power and the fear which this caused in Sparta3. By 431 BCE both sides were prepared to go to war, and both believed victory would be quick. The war lasted twenty-seven years. It began with Spartan raids on Atticas countryside in the summer of 431 BCE. Soldiers attempted to burn olive trees and grape vines, the mainstay of Athens economy4. They hoped the ruined crops would force Athens to sue for peace or face the deadly Spartan hoplites in battle. Spartan soldiers were fabled; the rest of Greece knew that they would lose any land battles against Sparta5. But Athens refused to bow to Sparta. Pericles, a powerful Athenian statesman, believed he had a winning plan. He moved everyone from the hinterland into Athens city walls so that Spartan raids on the countryside would have little effect6. He also kept up military pressure along the coast by sending superior fleets to harass the Peloponnesus. This move into the city was disastrous. With pressure on food, housing, and sanitation a plague broke out within Athens, one so deadly that Spartan soldiers refused to advance to the Long Walls. Thucydides, a survivor of the plague, states that the disease, first settling in the head, went on to affect every part of the body in turn, and even when people escaped its worst effects, it still left its traces on them by fastening upon the extremities of the body7. This was a time of complete and utter chaos. There was nowhere to bury the dead, and no way to treat the infected or even reduce their suffering. When people became affected they often resorted to unprecedented lawlessness8. Many lost their entire family and died alone in the streets. The exact numbers are debatable but Attica likely lost one-quarter to one-third of its population9. The plague, in only the second year of a twenty-seven-year long war, is what ultimately drove the Athenian defeat. It caused more deaths than all the battles the city fought against the Peloponnesian League. Thucydides states that nothing did more damage to Athenian power than the plague10 because it changed the entire course of the war. The state lost about one third of its hoplite troops and cavalry forces, and between forty and fifty thousand women, children and slaves, as well as the level-headed Pericles11. So few eligible sailors and rowers remained that slaves were given these positions in exchange for freedom12. It left Athens profoundly demoralized The plague was followed by a series of poor decisions by both sides. For the most part the two states never directly faced off, this was largely because of their opposing strengths; Spartas hoplite army could defeat any land-based enemy and Athens had the most powerful navy in the Aegean13. Athens did not want to fight Sparta on land, and Sparta did not want to fight Athens at sea. In 424 BCE Athens attacked Boetia, a Spartan ally just north of Attica that allowed Spartan raiders easy access into the Athenian countryside. This was supposed to be an equal-sided pitched battle14. Hoplite battles were normally fought on even ground at a set time and with roughly an equal number of troops. There were generally no surprises and winning was determined on the individual strength and resolve of the men. Battles were usually over in a matter of minutes15. But at the Battle of Delium the Boetians charged downhill towards the Athenian army and eliminated it. The Athenians lost nearly 15 per cent of their hoplite army16. The Athenians received another severe blow when they tried to regain Amphipolis, an important ally that had recently surrendered to Sparta. Thucydides was sent to save the city but arrived too late. He spent the next 20 years in exile. The Peloponnesian War marked the end of formalized warfare in Greece. Whole cities were destroyed and their inhabitants murdered or enslaved. After a decade of fighting the Peace of Nicias sought to ally Sparta and Athens. The terms stated that peace between the Peloponnesian League and the Delian League was to last for 50 years, and both sides were to return what land they had gained from the enemy17. This uneasy peace18 did not last long. By 418 BCE the truce was officially over; Athenian coastal attacks of the Peloponnesus had not ceased, and King Agis of Sparta attacked Mantinea and Argos19. In 415 BCE the Athenians embarked on their most controversial and disastrous military expedition to date. They resolved to sail again against Sicilyand, if possible, to conquer it.they did not realize that they were taking on a war of almost the same magnitude as their war against the Peloponnesians20. The Athenians believed that if they could conquer the large, fertile island they could cease grain imports into the Peloponnesus as well as increase imported grain for themselves21. They underestimated the size and strength of Sicily. The expedition was also poorly led22. The Athenian Assembly sent three commanders: Nicias, Lamachus, and the traitorous Alcibiades who jumped ship in southern Italy and fled to Sparta. After arriving at Syracuse the Athenian fleet waited several months before attacking thus enabling the Syracusans to prepare. When they finally attacked they won a hoplite battle but were unable to breach the reinforced city walls. They began constructing a siege wall, Syracusans built counter-walls but could not keep pace and victory looked certain for Athens. Then the Spartan fleet, having been informed by Alcibiades of the Athenians plan, landed on the island and attacked the Athenians from the rear. Athenian naval reinforcements were sent but modified Spartan and Corinthian ships smashed through the Athenian triremes and 25000 sailors and nearly all the Athenian ships were destroyed23. A night attack on Syracuse also ended disastrously. When the Syracusans began fighting back Athenian soldiers panicked, and in the dark began killing their own men. Some 40,000 Athenian soldiers attempted to retreat to Catana, a city in northern Sicily that was Athenian friendly. More Athenians died while fleeing than in all other Sicilian battles; 9000 hoplites and countless foot-soldiers perished. This wasthe greatest action that we know of in Hellenic historyto the vanquished the most calamitous of defeatstheir losses were, as they say, total; army, navy, everything was destroyed24. This failed conquest of Sicily was the second major factor in Athens fall from preeminence. While the Athenians flailed in Sicily, Spartan troops urged by Alcibiades, set up base in Decelea, which gave them control of rural Attica and prevented food supplies from reaching Athens. The Athenians were forced to break into the Iron Reserve, a secret stash of 1000 talents to construct a new fleet. In order to construct a fleet of their own, Sparta made a deal with King Darius of Persia: the Persians would provide gold for a fleet if Sparta surrendered Ionia25. The Spartans agreed and the Peloponnesian War moved to the sea. The Battle of Arginusae in 406 BCE was the biggest naval battle in Greek history and Athens greatest naval victory. The Athenians destroyed two thirds of Spartas fleet26. Sparta, exhausted and defeated, offered peace but the Athenians refused, arrogantly assuming their rivals could never recover from such devastating losses. This was the third massive blunder of the Athenians. Backed by Persian gold Sparta quickly rebuilt her fleet. The final battle of the Peloponnesian War was at Aegospotami, a harbour in the Hellespont. For days the Athenians tried to lure the Spartan admiral Lysander into battle. He waited until many Athenian sailors were off searching for food and water then, in a surprise attack, destroyed 171 Athenian triremes and killed 3000 soldiers27. With this defeat Athens was forced to join the Spartan alliance, destroy the Long Walls, surrender all but twelve ships, and abandon democracy28. Athens was finished. In three decades the once paramount polis of Athens had lost a third of its population to war, disease, and famine; she was bankrupt and was no longer a player in Mediterranean trade. She was now ruled by the oligarchic Spartans, and a tyrannical group of thirty Lysander loyalists who slaughtered more than five per cent of her remaining population29. The events of the last twenty-seven years, the plague, loss of tribute-bearing states, the violence wrought upon its allies, the financial burden of having to rebuild several fleets, bankruptcy, the humiliation of an enemy-occupied homeland, the Sicilian disaster, the broken down class barriers, political turmoil, and the monumental losses at sea had changed the city of Athens30. She was defeated and demoralized but was not destroyed. Population soon rebounded, arts and philosophy were restored, and trade and agriculture grew productive again. Athens had been brought to its knees by the plague and a few massive blunders, not because of superior Spartan strategic tactics and military ingenuity31. Athens was able to throw off the Spartan yoke in little over a year and reinstate democratic rule. An oligarchic Sparta was incapable of running an empire, even with Persian support. Classical Athens demonstrates a remarkable example of the resiliency of democracy. But, if Athens had not been so determined to spread democracy and to extend their empire throughout the Aegean, the thirty year long battle and its irreparable damage to classical Greek civilization may have been avoided entirely. Lessons to be learned from the Athenian empire are glaringly apparent in todays world of superpowers run by corporations where present-day governments, in a quest for secure oil reserves, again wage war under the guise of spreading democracy. The economic and political costs of the war in Iraq have been devastating to America and her allies. America finds herself increasingly weakened and isolated from the rest of the world. Any claims the United States may have had to moral superiority have been destroyed. Tens of thousands of civilians are being slaughtered in the chaos that the war has created. Iraqs infrastructure has been destroyed and the economy devastated. Much of the population has been reduced to poverty. It is imperative that democracy consider human rights before the interests of the state. The deplorable impact upon the populace by Athens attempts to spread democracy throughout ancient Greece are being echoed today in Americas attempts to impose democracy in the Middle East. The war is undermining and making unpalatable democracy itself. And, like ancient Athens, America risks finding its seemingly infinite power and prosperity irrevocably damaged. Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it.32 References Bagnall, Nigel 2004 The Peloponnesian War: Athens, Sparta, and the Struggle for Greece. New York: Thomas Dunne Books. Detailed book on the Peloponnesian War, although rather dry. It did however provide a great description of the events leading up to the war and what events may have perpetrated it. It also had good maps, a list of the main players in the war, and a historical survey, which listed all the city-states involved and how they contributed to the outcome of the war. Hanson, Victor Davis 2005 A War Like No Other. New York: Random House A very entertaining and accurate book on the Peloponnesian War. Hanson does not write like an historian, he writes as thought he is telling a story. This made the book enjoyable to read, but I did find it lacked continuity. He explained major themes of the war but had to jump around between events to do so. I often got confused as to which part of the war I was reading about. Hornblower, Simon 2002 The Greek World 479-323 BCE. London: Routledge. This book covers Greek history from the Persian invasion to Alexander the Great, essentially Classical Greece. There is a small discussion on the Peloponnesian War, but the majority of the text focuses on the before and after; that is how much the war changed Greece. It was an interesting read, although at parts rather technical and dry, but nonetheless informative on the causes and effects of the Peloponnesian War. Kagan, Donald 2003 The Peloponnesian War. London: Viking. A mammoth book on nothing but the Peloponnesian War. Kagan discusses every event in the war, taken from the writings of Thucydides and Xenophen. This makes his book very long and descriptive, but like Hanson he writes like a story-teller so his text is very engaging. Some parts (particularly the battle tactics drawn from Thucydides) are less entertaining. Nonetheless, a very clear and complete book. Morris, Ian Barry B. Powell 2006 The Greeks: History, Culture and Society. New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc. Survey textbook for my Classical Studies course. Just gives a chapter-long overview of the war, but is very complete in its description. The text lacks analysis, but it helped clarify certain events that some other authors went into far too much detail about. Overall, the book is very good; it discusses every aspect of ancient Greek life. Santayana, George 1906 The Life of Reason. New York: Prometheus Books. I only used his book for the quote. It demonstrates how something written one hundred years ago is still applicable in todays society and justifies the importance of understanding and learning from history. Thucydides 1972 History of the Peloponnesian War, trans. Rex Warner. London: Penguin Books. Thucydides, being our only primary source on the Peloponnesian War (up until 407 BCE at least), writes on the war from the militaristic standpoint. His analysis varies from being dry (when he is describing the military tactics in detail) to being extremely interesting (pretty much everything else). However, there is the problem of reliability when it comes to his discussion: he was not present at many of the events and speeches he writes about. Some of what he says must be taken with a grain of salt, but nothing he wrote about has been archaeologically disproved. His history is as accurate as we can ever hope to get. Notes 1 Kagan, 2003:3 2 Morris Powell, 2006:193 3 Thucydides I.23 4 Hanson, 2005: 37 5 Hornblower, 2002:118 6 Bagnall, 2004:139 7 Thucydides, II.49 8 Thucydides, II.53 9 Hanson, 2005:79 10 Thucydides, III.87 11 Hanson, 2005:79 12 Hanson, 2005:264 13 Kagan, 2003: 4, 8 14 Hanson, 2005: 144 15 Hornblower, 2002:192 16 Hanson, 2005:145 17 Hornblower, 2002:160 18 Thucydides, V.26 19 Hornblower, 2002:161 20 Thucydides, VI.1 21 Hanson, 2005:203 22 Hanson, 2005: 206 23 Morris Powell, 2006: 351 24 Thucydides, VII.87 25 Morris Powell, 2006:354 26 Morris Powell, 2006:358 27 Morris Powell, 2006:358 28 Kagan, 2003:481 29 Hanson, 2005:290 30 Hanson, 2005: 293 31 Hanson, 2005:309 32 Santayana, 1906:248.

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What assessment data is relevant to this patient that must be recognized as clinically significant to the nurse? The patient's vital signs are within normal limits for his age and patient has had good enteral intake for nurses shift and has had good output. Patient shows no signs of retractions and has good aeration. Patient IV access has been changed to a saline lock to keep the line open. Patient has no pain at this time. Rationale: has the status of the patient improved or not as expected to this point? What data supports this evaluation assessment? The patient has improved as was expected as evidenced by vital signs within normal limits for his age and patient has had good enteral intake for nurses shift and has had good output. Patient shows no signs of retractions and has good aeration. Patient’s IV access has been changed to a saline lock to keep the line open. Patient has no pain at this time. What pre-procedure teaching is needed for Jaxon and his family regarding the PICC insertion? What are appropriate techniques should be used for the teaching? Teach the family tha...

Language Essay Essay

Introduction Language is universal way to express how a person feels. So of course, it is essential in cultures to express their individuality within life. Most of the time people do not put a lot of speculation on what mental processes may be taking place subconsciously. These mental processes allow a person to think, speak, and express their personal thoughts through language. In order to properly analyze that language, cognition must be a part of the mental processes too. In this essay, we will delve deeper into how language and cognition are associated. Language & Lexicon Language is an efficient and consequential use of information, which can be both comprehended and used by all living things. It is also the communication of thoughts to language. According to Merriam-Webster (2014), cognitive psychology can be defined as, â€Å"a branch of psychology concerned with mental processes (as perception, thinking, learning, and memory) especially with respect to the internal events occurring between sensory stimulation and the overt expression of behavior.† Accordingly, when a person or animal learns to understand through the use of language, and with the capacity of that language, there can be a cognitive process that helps to separate humans from animals. Language is completely generative, dynamic, structured, and communicative. In language, a lexicon is known as the vocabulary or psychological language. A lexicon can hold many different types of words, which can also include how to pronounce a word, and the parts of speech for each word (Galotti, 2014). A lexicon is used to help a person understand words that are spoken, and their meanings. The spoken words are compared to a person’s lexicon, which is how a person can understand what the word is. It could be near impossible to understand a language or vocabulary without lexicons. The use of lexicons are a very important part of a person’s language. Key Features of Language There are many key features that make a language. The following are the main properties: generative, communicative, dynamic, and structured. Language is considered generative because, a person has an unlimited capacity as to how they build their personal languages. Language allows people to communicate with one another, and it also allows other animals to communicate within the same species as well. Language is dynamic because it is forever changing, and also develops people into having larger vocabularies. Lastly, the structure of language plainly shows exactly how convoluted it truly is. The great thing about language, is that it can adapt and expand as a person learns more information. New words can be added to a language or vocabulary, while others can be erased or updated (Galotti, 2014). Language development is different for each person. Some people are able to learn language through their cognitive functions, but sometimes, it takes more time. For an example, with children, they have to learn everything, which includes their own names, how they are feeling, how to express feeling, and objects. But they also have to learn how to use the vocabulary they are learning. Lastly, the feature that influences more cognitive processes, mainly languages that can influence thoughts. It works in a rotating structure, language helps to influence thoughts, and language also helps to regulates thoughts. A person always uses language in order to interpret their own thoughts. The main reason that language influences thought is because thoughts are when a person is consciously speaking to themselves. Levels of Language There are four different levels of language in reference to the structure and processing, phonemes, words, sentences, and texts. Phonemes are the tiniest part of sounds or units that can be used by people in order to form words. Phonemes are a person’s sounds of speech, which is similar to each letter in the alphabet. The main dilemma with phonemes are that each person’s creation of them are different. When a person studies phonetics, they are studying speech sounds and their physical properties. Words help a  person make sense of phonemes. Words are made up of by multiple spoken sounds. A sentence is, of course, a set of words which complete themselves. A sentence will also allow a person to organize their thoughts when they are preparing to speak, or to write something. A text helps a person connect sentences in order to form a small amount of information, or a paragraph. These usually help to explain a specific topic, and always have to be about one topic. All four of these structures are a crucial part of language. To put this more easily, phonemes lead to words, words lead to sentences, and sentences lead to texts (Galotti, 2014). Analyzing the Role: Language Process & Cognitive Psychology In order to properly analyze the role of processing language, a person has to first understand cognitive psychology, to study mental processes. Mental processes give a person the ability to think, believe, perceive, solve problems, make decisions, remember, learn, reason, and adapt. By using these mental processes a person can begin to understand and comprehend language, and with that, the process of the language is used. If a person does not understand the language’s structure, that person will not have the capability to understand texts, sentences, words or phonemes, which all make up a language. With lack of perceptive abilities, a person may not comprehend language, with all of its entirety. Cognitive processes help determine how the language is processed within the brain. When a person begins to learn and understand language, the cognitive process is in use. Conclusion The cognitive process known as language drives a separation in between humans and other beings. The lexicon contains words in which people can use to compare other words or parts of speech. There are multiple key features of language. These key features, as stated above are, generative, communicative, dynamic, and structured. With all of these features, language can become very intricate. If a person were to completely understand each one of these key features, they will be able to understand and comprehend how necessary they are to be used within language. Also, it is crucial for a person to analyze the role that cognitive psychology plays within the process of language. Cognitive psychology is important in many aspects of a  person’s life, but especially in the language process. References: Cognitive Psychology. (2014). In Merriam-Webster. Retrieved from http://www.merriam-webster.com/medical/cognitive%20psychology Galotti, K. M. (2014). Cognitive Psychology In and Out of the Laboratory (5th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

The Economic Environment in Chile Essay - 1083 Words

1.0 Introduction Chile is located in South America and is one of the longest countries in the world. It is located south of Peru and west of Bolivia and Argentina with a population of about 17.46 million people. Chile is quite well known for international trade. It was ranked 18th out of the 49 most competitive economies in the world by the 1996 World Competitiveness Report which was publishes by the International Institute for Management Development in Lausanne Switzerland. The official language of Chile is Spanish. However, many well – educated business persons speak English. It is an ideal international market to enter for Alvernian; a manufacturer of leisure and gym wear. The economic environment, cultural environment, political –†¦show more content†¦The goal of Alvernian should be to enlarge its business and venture out to become a global company. Chile is a great place to enter the international market for Alvernian leisure and gym wear. As a global company, Alvernia sho uld aim to create a single company culture and processes that are used globally to create the most efficient global organisation. â€Å"Benefits of going global include a better economy of scale and diversity in markets means more financial stability, a competitive advantage for a multinational company, new approaches which can be further utilized.†(IN TEXT FOR PARAPHRASING) 3.2 Operations Management Operations Management refers to the management of the design, execution and control of operations which then turns resources into tangible goods and / or services. Global sourcing is a major part of operations management. Businesses should try to find the cost efficient location to manufacture their goods. If manufacturing, delivery and wages of employees are cheaper in a certain country, operation facilities should be located at the country to save money. 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